Notes

[1] Final Statement A. Speer during the Nuremberg Trials, Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Vol. 22, 3

[1] August 1946, http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/08-31-46.htm, 6/9/2002, p. 405.

[2] Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 207 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, 18 p. , further called 'the proposal'.

[3] Action Plan prepared by the Council and the European Commission for the Feira European Council 19-20 June 2000, eEurope 2002: An Information Society for All, 14/6/2000, http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/action_plan/pdf/actionplan_en.pdf, 2/7/2002, 29 p.

[4] Ibid, p. 1.

[5] Green Paper on Public Sector Information in the Information Society, Public Sector Information: A key Resource for Europe, Com(1998) 585, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/publicsector/greenpaper.html, 17/6/2002, p. 9.

[6] X, Commercial Exploitation of Europe's Public Sector Information - Final Report, Surrey, England, Pira International, 2000, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/studies/studies.htm, 9/7/2002, p. 16.

[7] Rosenthal, U., Ringeling, A.B., Bovens, M.A.P., 't Hart, P., Van Twist, M.J.W., Openbaar besuur. Beleid, organisatie en politiek, Alphen aan den Rijn, Samson H.D. Tjeenk Willink, 1996, 29-31; Schram, F., Begrenzingen aan de openbaarheid van bestuur, Part 1, PhD-thesis, Leuven Catholic University, 2002, p. 92

[8] Peterson Dando, L., 'A Case for the Commercialization of Public Information', http://www.spatial.maine.edu/tempe/dando.html, 3/12/2002, p. 2, also published in Bamberger, W. & Sherwood Bryan, N. (eds.), Marketing Government Geographic Information: Issues and Guidelines, Washington D.C., URISA, 1993.

[9] Papapavlou, G., Public Sector Information Initiatives in the European Union, 1999, http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/documents/paper_papapavlou.rtf, 11/7/2002, p. 2.

[10] Elkin-Koren, N. & Weinstock Netanel, N. (eds.), Information Law Series: The Commodification of Information, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2002, p. 49.

[11] Ibid, p. 50.

[12] Clarke, R., 'Freedom of Information? The Internet as Harbringer of the New Dark Ages', First Monday, Vol. 4, Nr. 11, 1999, http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_11/clarke/index.html, 26/8/2002, p. 3.

[13] Mock, W., 'On the Centrality of Information Law: a rational discussion of information law and transparency', John Marshall Journal of Computer and Information Law, 1999, p. 1074.

[14] Clarke, R., 'Freedom of Information? The Internet as Harbringer of the New Dark Ages', First Monday, Vol. 4, Nr. 11, 1999, http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_11/clarke/index.html, 26/8/2002, p. 3.

[15] European Parliament Committee on Industry, External Trade Research and Energy, 'Draft report on the proposal for a European Parliament and Council directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents', 2002/0123(COD) Provisional, 29/10/2002, p. 13.

[16] X, Commercial Exploitation of Europe's Public Sector Information - Final Report, Surrey, England, Pira International, 2000, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/studies/studies.htm, 9/7/2002, p. 8.

[17] According to that same study was the estimated economic value in Europe for geographic information 35,8 billion Euros in 1999, for cultural information only 3,9 billion Euros. X, Commercial Exploitation of Europe's Public Sector Information - Final Report, Surrey, England, Pira International, 2000, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/studies/studies.htm, 9/7/2002, p. 16.

[18] Van Eechoud, M.M.M., 'Openbaarheid, exclusiviteit en markt: commercialisering van overheidsinformatie', Mediaforum, Nr. 6, 1998, http://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/eechoud/overheidsinformatie.nl, 10/7/2002, p. 3.

[19] Papapavlou, G., Public Sector Information Initiatives in the European Union, 1999, http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/documents/paper_papapavlou.rtf, 11/7/2002, p. 2.

[20] Van Eechoud, M.M.M., 'Openbaarheid, exclusiviteit en markt: commercialisering van overheidsinformatie', Mediaforum, Nr. 6, 1998, http://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/eechoud/overheidsinformatie.nl, 10/7/2002, p. 3.

[21] It should be noted here that it generally concerns information services which fall outside the scope of a government's public task.

[22] Papapavlou, G., Public Sector Information Initiatives in the European Union, 1999, http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/documents/paper_papapavlou.rtf, 11/7/2002, p. 2.

[23] Caws-Elwitt, H., 'Copyright, Competition, and Reselling Government Information: Impact of Dissemination', Katharina Sharp Review, Nr. 7, 1999, http://edfu.lis.uiuc.edu/review/7/caws-elwitt.pdf, p. 3.

[24] Peterson Dando, L., 'A Case for the Commercialization of Public Information', http://www.spatial.maine.edu/tempe/dando.html, 3/12/2002, p. 4, also published in Bamberger, W. & Sherwood Bryan, N. (eds.), Marketing Government Geographic Information: Issues and Guidelines, Washington D.C., URISA, 1993.

[25] Caws-Elwitt, H., 'Copyright, Competition, and Reselling Government Information: Impact of Dissemination', Katharina Sharp Review, Nr. 7, 1999, http://alexia.lis.uiuc.edu/review/7/caws-elwitt.pdf, p. 4.

[26] Ibid, p. 6.

[27] See for example, on the refusal to supply information, the ruling of the European Court of Justice in the famous Magill-case. ECJ, RTE & ITP v. Commission, 1995, ECR, I, 743.

[28] According to article 86 paragraph 2 of the Treaty, once a proposed information service can be described as serving the general economic interest, the authorities charged with managing such a service are no longer required to respect Community rulings on fair trade where these pose a de facto or legal barrier to the accomplishment of their mission. See De Terwange, C., 'Effect of Fair Trading Laws on the Commercialization of Data Held by the Public Sector' in de Terwange, C., Burkert, H., and Poullet, Y., Towards a Legal Framework for the Diffusion Policy for Data held by the Public Sector, Deventer, Kluwer, 1995, p. 64.

[29] For further explication on the relation between art. 82 and art 86 (2), see Jones, A.& Sufrin, B., EC Competition Law: Text, Cases and Materials, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001, 430-478.

[30] Van Eechoud, M.M.M., 'Openbaarheid, exclusiviteit en markt: commercialisering van overheidsinformatie', Mediaforum, Nr. 6, 1998, http://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/eechoud/overheidsinformatie.nl, 10/7/2002, p. 4.

[31] Gellman, R., 'The Foundations of United States Government Information Dissemination Policy', ITA Access and Ownership of Public Sector Information - International Symposium Vienna 7 December 2001, http://www.oeaw.ac.at/ita//access/abstracts.htm, 27/7/2002, p. 9.

[32] West, D.M., State and Federal E-government in the United States 2001, 2001, http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Taubman_Center/polreports/egovt01us.html, 12/8/2002, p. 14.

[33] Caws-Elwitt, H., 'Copyright, Competition, and Reselling Government Information: Impact of Dissemination', Katharina Sharp Review, Nr. 7, 1999, http://edfu.lis.uiuc.edu/review/7/caws-elwitt.pdf, p. 1.

[34] Copyright Act of 1976, Pub. L. No. 94-553, 90, Stat 2541, October 19, 1976, http://www.copyright.gov/title17/circ92.pdf, 17/7/2002, 237 p.

[35] Gellman, R., 'The American model of access to and dissemination of public information', Stockholm 1996 Conference: Access to Public Information: A key To Commercial Growth and Electronic Democracy, 1996, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/legal/stockholm/en/gellman.html, 16/7/2002, p. 2.

[36] Freedom of Information Act of 1974, 5, U.S.C., § 552, http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/5/552.html, 17/7/2002, 12 p.

[37] There are nine exceptions which justify non-disclosure of government information, among others, information regarding national security, trade secrets, etc. Every time the government invoke one of these exceptions, it carries the burden of proof.

[38] Perrit, H.H. Jr., 'Commercialization of Government Information: Comparisons Between the European Union and the United States', Internet Research, Vol. 4, Nr. 2, 1994, p. 7.

[39] Papapavlou, G., Public Sector Information Initiatives in the European Union, 1999, http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/documents/paper_papapavlou.rtf, 11/7/2002, p. 3.

[40] Council of Europe, Parliamentary Assembly, Recommendation 854 (1979) on access by the public to government records and freedom of information, quoted in Burkert, H., Public Sector Information: Some Implications for a European Information Structure, http://herbert-burkert.net/ARCHIV/1995-09-00-Vienna.pdf, 11/7/2002, p. 10

[41] Regulation nr. 1049/2001 by the European Parliament and the Council, 30 May 2001, 'Access to documents of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission', OJ L 145, 31/05/2001, p. 43-48.

[42] For a brief overview on the evolution towards a general access to documents of the EU institutions read Berge, A., Improved rules on public access documents?, Stockholm University, http://www.rz.uni-frankfurt.de/~sobotta/thesisart255.doc, 27/7/2002, 76 p.

[43] European Parliament Committee on Citizens' Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs, Draft Report Opinion on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, Provisional, 25/11/2002, p. 5.

[44] Perrit, H.H. Jr., 'Commercialization of Government Information: Comparisons Between the European Union and the United States', Internet Research, Vol. 4, Nr. 2, 1994, p. 14.

[45] Like for example in England because of the Crown Copyright.

[46] Papapavlou, G., Public Sector Information Initiatives in the European Union, 1999, http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/documents/paper_papapavlou.rtf, 11/7/2002, p. 3.

[47] Professor James Boyle notes that the distinction between 'public' and 'private' information is inspired by stereotypes which find their origins in liberal assumptions about property, society and privacy. These stereotypes often lead to (contradictory) tensions and are 'solved' by way of a romantic idea about the information creator or author. Since we are convinced that the latter is creating something original out of nothing, we are convinced that he should be rewarded for it with honor and property rights. Boyle, J., Shamans, Software and Spleens: Law and the Construction of the Information Society, London, Harvard University Press, 1996, p. 25.

[48] Weiss, P.N., & Backlund, P., 'International Information Policy In Conflict: Open and Unrestricted Access versus Government Commercialization. Will Inconsistent Government Policies Inhibit Development of a Global Information Infrastructure?', Harvard Information Infrastructure Project, 1996, http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/iip/GIIconf/weiss.html, 15/7/2002, p. 1.

[49] Gellman, R., 'The American model of access to and dissemination of public information', Stockholm 1996 Conference: Access to Public Information: A key To Commercial Growth and Electronic Democracy, 1996, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/legal/stockholm/en/gellman.html, 16/7/2002, p. 3.

[50] Gellman means the ability of an information creator who cannot copyright information to exercise, in whole or in part, the powers granted to a copyright owner. Gellman, R., 'The American model of access to and dissemination of public information', Stockholm 1996 Conference: Access to Public Information: A key To Commercial Growth and Electronic Democracy, 1996, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/legal/stockholm/en/gellman.html, 16/7/2002, p. 4.

[51] Paperwork Reduction Act of May 22, 1995, Public Law, 104, 13, 167, http://www.cio.noaa.gov/itmanagement/pra.htm, 17/7/2002, 22 p.

[52] (d), § 3506, Paperwork Reduction Act of May 22, 1995, Public Law, 104, 13, 174, http://www.cio.noaa.gov/itmanagement/pralaw.pdf, 17/7/2002, p. 12.

[53] OMB Circular No. A-130 Revised, 8 February 1996, http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars/a130/a130trans4.html, 19/09/2002, 78 p.

[54] X, Commercial Exploitation of Europe's Public Sector Information - Final Report, Surrey, England, Pira International, 2000, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/studies/studies.htm, 9/7/2002, p. 100.

[55] Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-231, http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=104_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ231.104.pdf, 19/9/2002, 8 p.

[56] Gellman, R., 'The American model of access to and dissemination of public information', Stockholm 1996 Conference: Access to Public Information: A key To Commercial Growth and Electronic Democracy, 1996, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/legal/stockholm/en/gellman.html, 16/7/2002, p. 4.

[57] County of Suffolk v. Experian Information, 2nd Cir., 25 July, 2001 quoted in Gellman, R., 'The Foundations of United States Government Information Dissemination Policy', ITA Access to and Ownership of Public Sector Information, international symposium, Vienna, 7 December, 2001, p. 5.

[58] One explanation might be that in Europe the opportunities regarding electronic commerce of personal data, has won it over those a general right of access to information could offer. The preference for this aspect of data protection, confidentiality, matched the prevailing idea on information within the different governments of Europe at that time. Burkert, H., Public Sector Information: Some Implications for a European Information Infrastructure, Paper, 1995, http://herbert-burkert.net/ARCHIV/1995-09-00-Vienna.pdf, 11/7/2002, p 9.

[59] Perrit, H.H. Jr., 'Commercialization of Government Information: Comparisons Between the European Union and the United States', Internet Research, Vol. 4, Nr. 2, 1994, p. 16. Although within the U.S. initiatives have been taken to introduce a data-protection law similar to Europe (for example the recently at the House of Representatives introduced proposition H.R. 1858), the idea remains that such laws would be contrary to the federal constitution.

[60] Perrit, H. H. Jr., Rustad, Z., 'Freedom of Information Spreads to Europe', Government Information Quarterly, Vol. 17, Nr. 4, 2000, p. 404.

[61] X, Verslag Studiedag 'Transparante Overheidsinformatie in Vlaanderen', http://www.law.kuleuven.ac.be/icri/education/ohinfo/verslag.pdf, 11/7/2002, p. 3.

[62] Wet betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Law regarding the publicity of administration), 11 April 1994, Moniteur Belge, 30 June 1994, amended by the law of 25 June 1998, Moniteur Belge, 4 September 1998, and amended by the law of 26 June 2000, Moniteur Belge, 15 July 2000.

[63] Decreet van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Decree of the Flemish Region regarding the publicity of administration), 18 May 1999, Moniteur Belge, 15 June 1999.

[64] Ordonnantie betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Ordonnance on the publicity of administration), 26 June 1997, Moniteur Belge, 20 September 1997.

[65] Wet betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur in de provincies en gemeenten (Law regarding the publicity of administration in the provinces and municipalities), 12 November 1997, Moniteur Belge, 19 December 1997.

[66] Article 10 Wet betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Law regarding the publicity of administration) 11 April 1994; Article 6 § 4 Decreet van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Decree of the Flemish Region regarding the publicity of administration), 18 May 1999; Article 16Ordonnantie betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur (Ordonnance on the publicity of administration), 26 June 1997; Article 11 Wet betreffende de openbaarheid van bestuur in de provincies en gemeenten (Law regarding the publicity of administration in the provinces and municipalities), 12 November 1997.

[67] X, Verslag Studiedag 'Transparante Overheidsinformatie in Vlaanderen, http://www.law.kuleuven.ac.be/icri/education/ohinfo/verslag.pdf, 11/7/2002, p. 3.

[68] However, exceptions do exist, like the 1994 act that introduced the National Technical Information Service as part of the federal Department of Commerce, as a clearinghouse for the collection and dissemination of scientific, technical and engineering information created by other federal agencies. Since it is required to be self-sustaining, it must set prices for its information products and services that will cover its costs. One result is that the prices for many NTIS documents exceed the costs of reproduction. Gellman, R., 'The American model of access to and dissemination of public information', Stockholm 1996 Conference: Access to Public Information: A key To Commercial Growth and Electronic Democracy, 1996, http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/legal/stockholm/en/gellman.html, 16/7/2002, p. 5.

[69] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 207 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 22/12/2002, p. 3.

[70] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, eEurope 2002: Creating a framework for the exploitation of public sector information, COM (2001) 607 Final, 23/10/2001, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 17/6//2002, p. 7.

[71] See article 1 of the proposed directive.

[72] As pointed out before, the approach of considering the access to and the use of government information as two conceptual different activities is typical European.

[73] It particularly concerns exceptions to : documents the supply of which is an activity falling outside the scope of the public task of the public sector bodies concerned as defined by law or common administrative practice, documents or parts for which third parties hold intellectual property rights, documents containing personal data (unless the re-use of such personal data is admissible under the provisions of Community law and national measures on the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy)documents held by public broadcasters and their subsidiaries, documents held by educational and research establishments and documents held by cultural establishments.

[74] See article 1 and 3 of the proposed directive.

[75] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 207 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, p. 9.

[76] See article 5, 1st section of the proposed directive.

[77] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 207 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, p. 10.

[78] See article 5 2nd Section of the proposed directive.

[79] These are the exceptions mentioned in article 1 and 3 of the proposed directive, see supra footnote 73.

[80] Although at first sight this principle of non-discrimination seems to apply both to the commercial and non-commercial re-use of government information, the proposal nevertheless makes a distinction. In particular in article 7, section 1 & 2. As to the conditions for non-commercial re-use of public sector information, they also have to apply in a non-discriminatory way, but only with regard to comparable categories of re-users. This raises the question why for non-commercial purposes the principle of non-discrimination would only apply to comparable categories of re-users, while in the case of commercial purposes the non-discrimination principle applies independently of whether comparable categories of users are involved.

[81] See article 7, 3rd section of the proposed directive. However, again a remark has to be made. Since at the end of article 7, section 3 sets as a condition "where re-use is allowed", one might wonder who will judge the fact of information being allowed or not. If it is the government or agency itself that is going to judge, the danger exists of being judge and party at the same time. This would unfairly disadvantage potential competitors to the governments' or agency's commercial activities, and as such, circumvent the principle of non-discrimination.

[82] See article 6 of the proposed directive.

[83] See article 8 of the proposed directive.

[84] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 2 07 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, p. 10.

[85] See article 10 of the proposed directive.

[86] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector documents, COM(2002) 207 Final, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, p. 11.

[87] Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal presented by the Commission for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the re-use and commercial exploitation of public sector information, COM(2002) 207 Provisional Version, 5 June 2002, http://www.cordis.lu/econtent/psi/psi_policy.htm, 20/12/2002, p. 11.