[1] The U.S. Department of Defence is the only one to grant an access to its non-lethal technologies program, through a complete database of information widely available to the public. Department of Defense Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program Home Page, <http://iis.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/jnlwd/>, accessed February 2000.
[2] U.S Department of Defense Directive number 3000.3, July 9, 1996, <http://iis.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/jnlwd/Documents/DOD+Directive+3000-3,+9+Jul+96.pdf>, accessed February 2000.
[3] Ibid, page 2.
[4] National Institute of Justice Initiative on Less-Than-Lethal Weapons, National Institute of Justice Research in Brief, March 1993.
[5] Non-Lethal Weapons Give Peacekeepers Flexibility, Aviation Week and Space Technology, 7 December 1992, page 50.
[6] Dod Directive 3000.3, supra note 2, page 2.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, January 1998, page 7, at <http://iis.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/jnlwd/Documents/JointConceptforNLWJan98.PDF>, accessed February 2000.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Non-Lethal Defense III Conference, Non-Lethal Activities at ICT, at <http://www.dtic.mil/stinet/ndia/NLD3/ict.pdf>, accessed February 2000.
[11] Reports from Russia indicate that there is considerable interest in non-lethal technologies. See for example R. Kokosky, "Non-Lethal Weapons: A Case Study of New Technology Developments", in SIPRI Yearbook 1994: World Armaments and Disarmament (Stockholm/Oxford: SIPRI/Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 367-386.
[12] See Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, supra note 8, page 3.
[13] Martin N. Stanton, « What Prices Sticky Foam », Parameters, Autumn 1996. At <http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/96autumn/stanton.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[14] Stech, Frank J., "Winning CNN Wars", Parameters, Autumn 1994. pp. 37-56. At <http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/1994/stech.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[15] Mark R. Thomas, Major, US Air Force. "Non-Lethal Weaponry: A Framework for Future Integration", Air Command and Staff College Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, April 1998. At <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/docs/98-279.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[16] Capt. Edward P. O'Connel and 1st Lt. John T. Dillaplain, "Nonlethal concepts: Implications for Air Force Intelligence", Airpower Journal, Winter 94. At <http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj94/dil.html>, accessed February 2000.
[17] See supra note 13.
[18] Paul G. O'Conner, "Waging War with Non-Lethal Weapons". In Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concern. Edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar, et al. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press (1994), page 335.
[19] Nick Lewer, "Non-Lethal Weapons", Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, summer 1999, exclusively online at <http://forum.ra.utk.edu/summer99/nonlethal.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[20] Cited in "Non-Lethal Technologies: Progress and Prospects", Independent Task Force Report, Council on Foreign Relations, at <http://www.cfr.org/p/resource.cgi?pub!3326>, accessed February 2000.
[21] Dod Directive 3000.3, supra note 2, page 3.
[22] Ibid, page 2.
[23] "One On One", Defense News 9, N° 14 (11-17 April 1994), page 30.
[24] See supra note 8, Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, January 1998, pp. 11-12.
[25] In light of the Non-Lethal Weapons Multi-Service Procedure for The Tactical Employment of Non-Lethal Weapons, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, FM 90-40. At <http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usacsl/divisions/pki/referenc/fm90-40/fm90-40.htm>, accessed March 2000.
[26] Table compiled from the following documents: - USAF Colonel Joseph Siniscalchi, Non-Lethal Technologies: Implications for Military Strategy, Occasional Paper No. 3, Center for Strategy and Technology, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, March 1998, at <http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awccsat.htm#papers>, accessed February 2000. - USAF Major Mark R. Thomas, Non-Lethal Weaponry: A Framework for Future Integration, AU/ACSC/279/1998-04, Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, April 1998, at <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/docs/98-279.pdf>, accessed March 2000. - Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, January 1998, supra note 8. - Non-Lethal Weapons Multi-Service Procedure for The Tactical Employment of Non-Lethal Weapons, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, FM 90-40, supra note 25.
[27] Speech of Martin R. Steele, Lieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps, Deputy Chief of Staff, at the Non-Lethal Defense III Conference, Johns Hopkins University, 25 February 1998, page 4. At <http://iis.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/jnlwd/Documents/LtSteeleSpcH35Feb98.pdf>, accessed February 2000.
[28] See James F. McNulty, A Non-Lethal Alternative to Anti-Personnel Land Mines, Non-Lethal Defense III, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, February 25-26 1998. At <http://www.dtic.mil/stinet/ndia/NLD3/nulty.pdf>, accessed February 2000.
[29] For air-space or sea-space the documents are rare. However it is clear that such technologies are being developed. The non-lethality is not clear when applied to aircrafts. If a pilot enters a zone of influence of a system which renders the aircraft/helicopter inoperable, this may cause -obviously- a problem.
[30] Again, regarding aircrafts, the non-lethality is dubious.
[31] Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, January 1998, supra note 8, page 13.
[32] A Scenario Based Methodology for the Selection of Non-Lethal Weapons, Non-Lethal Weapons System Engineering Study Team, Combat Systems Science and Technology Curriculum, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, page 2. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/rand.pdf>, accessed February 2000.
[33] USAF Major Mark R. Thomas, Non-Lethal Weaponry: A Framework for Future Integration, page 16, supra note 26.
[34] Klaaren, Maj Jonathan W., and Maj Ronald S. Mitchell, "Nonlethal Technology and Airpower: A Winning Combination for Strategic Paralysis", Airpower Journal, Special Edition 1995, pp. 42-51. At http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/mitchkla.html, accessed February 2000.
[35] John B. Alexander, Non-Lethal Weapons as Force Options for the Army, LA-UR-94-861 (Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory, March 1994), page 6. Quoted in USAF Major Mark R. Thomas, Non-Lethal Weaponry: A Framework for Future Integration, page 19. See supra note 26.
[36] Joint Concept for Non-Lethal Weapons, January 1998. See supra note 8, page 15.
[37] Cook, Maj Joseph W., III., Maj David P. Fiely, and Maj Maura T. McGowan. "Nonlethal Weapons: Technologies, Legalities, and Potential Policies," Special Edition 1995, pp. 77-91. At <http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/mcgowan.html>, accessed March 2000.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Ibid. The added emphasis shall be explained latter, when dealing with the question of the legality of the non-lethal arsenal.
[41] James F. Mc Nulty, A Non-Lethal Alternative to Anti-Personnel Landmines, supra note 28.
[42] On the characteristics of non-lethal weapons, see Non-Lethal Technologies: Implications for Military Strategy, supra note 26.
[43] Non-Lethal Technologies: Implications for Military Strategy, supra note 26.
[44] Col John Barry, LTC Michael Everett, Lt Col Allen Peck, "Nonlethal Military Means: New Leverage for a New Era", National Security Program Policy Analysis Paper 94-01, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 1994.
[45] U.S. Defense Department, "Review of Legality of Weapons under International Law", Instruction 5500.15, 16 October 1974.
[46] "Non-Lethal Technologies: Military Options and Implications", Report of an Independent Task Force, New York, NY, Council on Foreign Relations, 1995.
[47] Lt Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, "The Non-Lethal Weapons Debate", Military Press, Spring 1999. At <http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/1999/spring/art5-SP9.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[48] Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, Dec. 12, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609, 16 I.L.M
[49] See Chapter 7, The Law of War, serving as a framework for U.S. Judge Advocates. At <http://ogc4.hq.dla.mil/html/practice/contingency/manual/chap07.htm>, accessed March 2000.
[50] Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, General List N° 95, Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice, 8 July 1996, par. 78-79 (35 I.L.M. 809 [1996]).
[51] See Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Oct. 18, 1907, 205 Consol. T.S. 277, reprinted in The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907, at 157-62 (John B. Scott ed., 1918).
[52] Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of certain Explosive Projectiles. Saint Petersburg, 29 November/11 December 1868.
[53] See U.S. Operational Law Handbook, Chapter 7, The Law of War, serving as a framework for U.S. Judge Advocates. See supra note 49.
[54] Ibid.
[55] From U.S. DoDTradoc Pamphlet 525-73, Military Operations: Concept for Nonlethal Capabilities in Army Operations, Appendix C.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Ibid.
[58] U.S. Navy Dept., Judge Advocate General [hereafter JAG], memoranda: "Legal Review of Stinger Grenades," 25 January 1995; "Legal Review of 12 Gauge Shotgun Bean Bag/Rubber Pellet/Wood Baton Rounds," 30 January 1995; "Legal Review of 40 mm Rubber Pellet/Foam Rubber Multiple Baton/Bean Bag/Wood Multiple Baton Rounds," 30 January 1995; "Legal Review of Sticky/Restraining Foam," 6 February 1995; "Legal Review of Barrier Foam," 6 February 1995; and "Legal Review of 40 mm Practice M781 Round Modified with Foam Rubber Projectile," 7 February 1995. For the M781 see "Mortar Systems Information (M931)," FSAC Mortar Office Home Page, <http://www.pica.army.mil/orgs/fsac/aif_mo/xm931/html> (29 June 1998). Cited in Lt Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, "The Non-Lethal Weapons Debate", supra note 47.
[59] The author nevertheless is very grateful to the various U.S. military officers for their contribution to this study, either by the materials they published, or directly through the numerous contacts via electronic mail.
[60] Michael R. Murphy, Biological Effects of Non-Lethal Weapons: Issues and Solutions, Directed Energy Bioeffects Division, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/murp.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[61] See supra, note 60.
[62] H. Edwin Boesch, Jr. Bruce T. Benwell, and Vincent J. Ellis, A High Power Electrically Driven Impulse Acoustic Source for Target Effects Experiments and Area Denial Applications, Army Research Laboratory, Adelphi, MD. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/boe.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[63] See infra under "Optics".
[64] 21. U.S. Navy Dept., Deputy Assistant JAG, "Legal Review of Proposed Chemical Based Nonlethal Weapons," proposal 10 March 1997, final review and approval 30 November 1997. Cited in Lt Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, "The Non-Lethal Weapons Debate", supra note 47.
[65] Michael R. Murphy, Biological Effects of Non-Lethal Weapons: Issues and Solutions, supra note 60.
[66] Ltc Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, Legal and Ethical Guiding Principles and Constraints Concerning Non-Lethal Weapons Technology and Employment, Defense Manpower Center, DoD Center-Monterey Bay. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/copp.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[67] Ibid.
[68] David K. Dubay, Health Risk Analysis of First Defense(r) Pepper Spray Using an Acute Whole Body Inhalation Exposure, Defense Technology Corporation. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/dubay.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[69] Ltc Margaret-Anne Copernoll, Legal and Ethical Guiding Principles and Constraints Concerning Non-Lethal Weapons Technology and Employment. See supra note 65.
[70] Tradoc Pamphlet 525-73, Military Operations: Concept for Nonlethal Capabilities in Army Operations, Appendix C. See supra note 55.
[71] They include taser guns and sticky shockers. For a complete description of sticky shockers, see Edward Vasel, Sticky Shocker, at at <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/vasel.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[72] Rick Smith, The Missing Tools are "Off the Shelf", at <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/smith.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[73] Ibid.
[74] George Lucey and Louis Jasper, Vortex Ring Generator, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, DE Effects and Mitigation Branch, Adelphi, MD. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/lucey.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[75] Jeffrey M. Widder, Donald J. Butz, and Janice M. Milosh, Assessing the Blunt Trauma Potential of Free Flying Projectiles for Development and Safety Certification of Non-Lethal Kinetic Energy Impactors, Battelle Columbus Operations, 505 King Avenue, Columbus OH 43201, at <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/widder.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[76] Adopted on 13 October 1995 at the first Review Conference of the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, CWC/CONF.I/7.
[77] Lt. Col. Greg Schneider, "Nonlethal Weapons: Considerations for Decision-Makers", National Defense Fellow Research Paper (unpublished), Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, University of Illinois, June 1996. Cited in USAF Colonel Joseph Siniscalchi, Non-Lethal Technologies: Implications for Military Strategy, supra note 26.
[78] Doc. CCW/CONF.I/MCIII/WP.3, 27 September 1995.
[79] For a complete analysis of the Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons, see Louise Doswald-Beck, "New Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons", International Review of the Red Cross, N°312, May 1996, page 272-299. At <http://www.cicr.org/icrceng.nsf/5cacfdf48ca698b641256242003b3295/441f5540554e2debc125638f002e62ba?OpenDocument>, accessed April 2000.
[80] Ibid.
[81] The ICRC was also of the opinion that the Protocol should not attempt a technical description, as this would be extremely difficult to do and would therefore considerably delay the adoption of a Protocol. See supra note 78.
[82] Eric J. Cramer and John D. German, Eye Safe Illuminators as Non-Lethal Weapons, Science and Engineering Associates, Inc., at <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/deeg.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[83] Ibid.
[84] Rick Smith, The Missing Tools are "Off the Shelf". See supra note 70.
[85] Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Non-Lethal(NL) Payload Delivery System, Naval Warfare Center Dahlgren Division, Dahlgren Laboratory, VA. At <http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/NLD3/aba.pdf>, accessed March 2000.
[86] Ltc Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, Legal and Ethical Guiding Principles and Constraints Concerning Non-Lethal Weapons Technology and Employment. Supra note 66.
[87] ICJ Rep. (1996), I, para. 25; reprinted in ILM 814 (1996).
[88] Nigel S. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law, Oxford University Press (1999), pp. 188-190.
[89] For a complete analysis of both principles, see Nigel S. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners Under International Law, pp. 182-188. Ibid.
[90] European Convention on Human Rights, article 2 (c), right to life.
[91] Application no. 10044/82, Decision of the European Commission of Human Rights as to Admissibility (1984).
[92] Ibid, para. 19.
[93] Ibid, paras. 20-29.
[94] Ltc Margaret-Anne Coppernoll, Legal and Ethical Guiding Principles and Constraints Concerning Non-Lethal Weapons Technology and Employment, supra note 66.
[95] Non-Lethal Weapons Multi-Service Procedure for The Tactical Employment of Non-Lethal Weapons, supra note 25.
[96] Ibid. Chapter IV: "Training with the nonlethal capability set".
[97] It is at least the only "Approved for Public Release" training program. It can be accessed at <http://www.ftmc-marine.army.mil/>.
[98] See supra note 83, and text accompanying note.
[99] U.S. Operational Law Handbook, Chapter 8: Rules of Engagement. At < http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usacsl/divisions/pki/legal/oplaw/n-chpr8.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[100] Ibid.
[101] J. Ashley Roach, Rules of Engagement, Naval War College Review, January-February 1983.
[102] Mark S. Martins, Rules of Engagement for Land Forces: A Matter of Training, not Lawyering, 143 Military Law Review 1 (1994).
[103] Joint Task Force UNITED SHIELD, Rules of Engagement, unclassified ROE card ser. 1, 11 January 1995, cited in Lorenz, "Non-Lethal Force: The Slippery Slope to War?", Parameters, Autumn 1996, page 62. At <http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/96autumn/lorenz.htm>, accessed February 2000.
[104] Ibid., page 73.
[105] Paul G. O'Conner, "Waging War with Non-lethal Weapons". In Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concern. Edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar, et al. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press (1994).
[106] Gülec v. Turkey, 27 July 1998, (54/1997/838/1044), para. 71.
[107] Ibid, para. 72.