Notes

[1] van Boven, T., (Special Rapporteur of the United Nations), Study concerning the right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms: Final Report, UN Doc. E/CN. 4/Sub.2/1993/8, 2 July 1993, 7 (hereafter the "van Boven Report"). See below for a discussion on the various elements of reparation.

[2] National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families: Bringing Them Home Report (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997) ( hereafter "the Report of the National Inquiry").

[3] South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Report 1998, [Internet] URL: http://www.truth.org.za/final/index.htm (hereafter "the Commission's Report")

[4] Justice Roy, "Is the Law of Responsibility of States for Injuries to Aliens a Part of Universal International Law?" (1961) 55 American Journal of International Law 863, 863.

[5] For a discussion and references on the sources and obligations under international law to provide reparations refer to Orentlicher, D.F., "Addressing Gross Human Rights Abuses: Punishment and Victim Compensation" in Henkin, L., and Hargrove, J.L., (eds), Human Rights: An Agenda for the Next Century, (Washington DC: The American Society of International Law, 1994), 425-426;.Steiner, H.J., and Alston, P., International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics and Morals (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1996); Wallace, R., International Human Rights: Text & Materials (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1997); and Minow, M., Between Vengeance and Forgiveness (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998)

[6] E/CN.4/Sub.2/1989/13.

[7] van Boven, above n 1.

[8] van Boven, T, 1996: Revised set of basic principles and guidelines on the right to reparation for victims of gross violations of human rights and humanitarian law prepared by Mr. Theo van Boven pursuant to Sub-Commission decision 1995/117, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/17, 24 May 1996 (hereafter the 'revised van Boven Principles').

[9] van Boven, above n 1.

[10] van Boven, above n 8, 2.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Id, 4.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Id, 5.

[16] Report of the National Inquiry, above, n 2.

[17] "ICCPR" Article 2(3)(a): "Each State Party... undertakes to ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated shall have an effective remedy...", G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966) U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force Mar. 23, 1976.

[18] "ICERD" Article 6 : "States Parties shall assure to everyone within their jurisdiction effective protection and remedies... as well as the right to seek just and adequate reparation or satisfaction..." 660 U.N.T.S. 195, entered into force Jan. 4, 1969.

[19] "CROC" Article 39: " States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and physiological recovery and social integration of a child victim of... [any form of] cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment...", G.A. res. 44/25, annex, 44 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 167, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989).

[20] "CAT" Article 14 - "Each State Party shall ensure in its legal system that the victim of an act of torture obtains redress and has an enforceable right to fair and adequate compensation, including the means for as full rehabilitation as possible.", G.A. Res. 39/46, annex, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/15 (1984); adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1984.

[21] Restitution by its very nature is not elucidated to the same extent as the other forms of reparation but it is nevertheless a recognised component of "redress", "reparation" and "just satisfaction": see for example, Articles 8-11, 19, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power G.A. 40/34, annex, 40 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 53) at 214, U.N. Doc. A/40/53 (1985); Article 50, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS No. 5, Rome, 4.XI.1950 in the context of De Wilde, Ooms & Versyp v Belgium, European Court of Human Rights, Judgment 10 March 1972 (Article 50), Series A, No. 14 cited in van Boven, T, 1993: Study concerning the right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms: Final report submitted by Mr Theo van Boven, Special Rapporteur, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, para 83; see also Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Volume 10 "States - Responsibility of States - International Law and Municipal Law" (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1987), 369, 375-178. See also Deng, F, Guiding Principles on internal displacement - human rights, mass exoduses and displaced persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 1997/39, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, Principle 29.

[22] Article 10, 63(1), American Convention on Human Rights, O.A.S. Treaty Series No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123 entered into force July 18, 1978, reprinted in Basic Documents Pertaining to Human Rights in the Inter-American System, OEA/Ser.L.V/II.82 doc.6 rev.1 at 25 (1992); Article 21(2), African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), entered into force Oct. 21, 1986; Article 9(5), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force March 23, 1976; Article 5(5), European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS No. 5, Rome, 4.XI.1950; Article 14(1) Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. res. 39/46, annex, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984), entered into force June 26, 1987; Article 19, Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, G.A. res. 47/133, 47 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/47/49 (1992); Article 15(2), 16(5), ILO Covention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (ILO No. 169), 72 ILO Official Bull. 59, entered into force Sept. 5, 1991; Articles 12-13, 19, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power G.A. 40/34, annex, 40 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 53) at 214, U.N. Doc. A/40/53 (1985).

[23] Article 14(1) Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. res. 39/46, annex, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984), entered into force June 26, 1987; Article 19, Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, G.A. res. 47/133, 47 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/47/49 (1992); Article 39, Convention on the Rights of the Child, G.A. res. 44/25, annex, 44 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 167, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989), entered into force Sept. 2, 1990; Articles 14-17, 19, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power G.A. 40/34, annex, 40 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 53) at 214, U.N. Doc. A/40/53 (1985).

[24] Article 6, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 660 U.N.T.S. 195, entered into force Jan. 4, 1969; Article 16(4), ILO Covention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (ILO No. 169), 72 ILO Official Bull. 59, entered into force Sept. 5, 1991.

[25] Velásquez Rodriguez Case (Venezuela v Peru), Compensatory Damages (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights), Judgment of July 21, 1989 Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 7 (1990), para 25; Factory at Chorzów (Germany-Poland), Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, 21; Factory at Chorzów (Germany Poland), Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, 29, 47; Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania (Second Phase), Advisory Opinion, [1950] I.C.J. Rep. 228; Aloeboetoe et al. Case, Reparations (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights) Judgment of September 10, 1993, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 15 (1994); Article 8, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. res. 217A (III) U.N. Doc. A/810 at 71 (1948); Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 174;

[26] van Boven, above n 1, 36-37.

[27] Inter-Am. Crt H.R. Judgment, Ser.C, No.4 (1988) para 174.

[28] van Boven, above n 1, 53.

[29] van Boven, above n 1, 50.

[30] Id, 44.

[31] Id, 45.

[32] Danieli, Y., "Preliminary Reflections from a Psychological Perspective", Seminar on the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Maastricht: University of Limburg, 11-15 March 1992) 196, 205.

[33] van Boven, above n 1, 45.

[34] Quiroga, C.M. "The Experience of Chile", Seminar on the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Maastricht: University of Limburg, 11 - 15 March 1992) 101, 104.

[35] van Boven, above n 1, 47.

[36] Hayner, P. B., "Fifteen Truth Commissions - 1974 to 1994: A Comparative Study" (1994) 16 Human Rights Quarterly 597, 622.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Hayner, above n 36.

[39] van Boven, above n 1, 51

[40] Coonan, T.S., "Rescuing History: Legal and Theological Reflections on the Task of Making Former Torturers Accountable" (1997) 20 Fordham International Law Journal 512, 517-518.

[41] Hayner, above n 36, 615.

[42] Coonan, above n 40, 520.

[43] Coonan, above n 40, 522.

[44] Id, 522-523.

[45] Id, 523.

[46] Artucio, A., "Impunity of Perpetrators", Seminar on the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Maastricht: University of Limburg, 11-15 March 1992) 182, 193.

[47] van Boven, above n 1, 50.

[48] Orentlicher, D. F., above n 5, 430.

[49] Van Boven, as above n 1, 51.

[50] Orentlicher, D. F., above n 5, 458.

[51] Id, 430.

[52] van Boven, above n 1, 52.

[53] Ratner, S., and Abrams, J., Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) 199. See below for further comment on the South African situation.

[54] van Boven, above n 1, 52; see also Artucio, above n 46, 182, 186.

[55] van Boven, above n 1, 8.

[56] See for example, Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 266; and Buti, T., "Removal of Indigenous Children from their Families: The National Inquiry and What Came Before - The Push for Reparation" (1998) 3 Australian Indigenous Law Reporter 1.

[57] Butler R, speaking at the workshop on removal of Indigenous children at the Australian Reconciliation Convention in Melbourne, 26 May 1997, stated that the Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care, along with other organisations and individuals had been lobbying governments to hold an inquiry since the late 1980's.

[58] Refer to above n 2; and Buti, T., After the Removal, (Perth: ALSWA (Inc), 1996).

[59] D'Souza, N., '"The Stolen Generation: From Removal to Reconciliation", (1998) 21(1) University of New South Wales Law Journal 204, 205.

[60] Ibid.

[61] ALSWA, Telling Our Story: A Report by the ALSWA (Inc) on the removal of Aboriginal children from their families in Western Australia, (Perth: ALSWA (Inc), 1995).

[62] Buti, T., above n 58.

[63] Via proof of evidence and/or questionnaire-statement from over 700 people.

[64] Williams v Minister Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1983 (1994) 35 NSWLR 497.

[65] Kruger v Commonwealth; Bray v Commonwealth 146 ALR 126.

[66] Unpublished. Refer to an earlier version of the paper, Merkel R, "Government Culpability For The Forced Removal of Aboriginal Children From Their Families", (1990) 2(47) Australian Law Bulletin 4.

[67] Hereafter "HREOC". HREOC is a Commonwealth statutory body charged with advocating, mediating and adjudicating on matters of discrimination and human rights.

[68] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 252.

[69] Id, 253.

[70] Id, 255-256.

[71] Id, 256-257.

[72] Id, 259, 260.

[73] Id, 277.

[74] Id, 277, 278.

[75] Id, 278.

[76] Id, 250.

[77] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 266, 269; and American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law, Third, The Foreign Relations Law of the United States, INTERNATIONAL LAW OF HUMAN RIGHTS, Section 702 (headnote) (St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers, 1997).

[78] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 250, 277.

[79] Id, 277; the discriminatory operation of the legislation preceded the separate legislation.

[80] Id, 270-275, 278. Such violations occurred during the time which Australia was bound by the Genocide Convention and possibly before under obligations erga omnes; see Hugo Princz v Federal Republic of Germany 26F. 3d 1116, 65, 1 July 1994 (US App.) cited in Buti, T, above n 46, 12; cf Alec Kruger & Ors v The Commonwealth of Australia; George Ernest Bray & Ors v The Commonwealth of Australia 146 ALR 126; hereafter "Kruger and Bray".

[81] Notwithstanding that the legislation authorising the removal was primarily State legislation; see Heirs of the Duc de Guise Case (France-Italy) (1964) 13 Reports of International Arbitral Awards 154, 161; Pellat Case (France-Mexico) (1952) 5 Reports of International Arbitral Awards 534, 536, cited in Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Volume 10 "States - Responsibility of States - International Law and Municipal Law" (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1987), 367-8; Charlesworth, H., "Individual Complaints: An Overview and Admissibility Requirements" in Pritchard, S, (ed) Indigenous Peoples, the United Nations and Human Rights (Sydney: The Federation Press, 1998), 76; Velásquez Rodriguez Case, Judgment of July 29, 1988, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 4 (1988); note also American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law, Third, The Foreign Relations Law of the United States, INTERNATIONAL LAW OF HUMAN RIGHTS, Section 702, Comment b, Reporter's Note 2, Section 703, Comment c(St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers, 1997).

[82] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 269, 282; and van Boven, above n 1, paras 8, 13; American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law, Third, The Foreign Relations Law of the United States, INTERNATIONAL LAW OF HUMAN RIGHTS, Section 702, Comment m (St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers, 1997).

[83] Orentlicher, D. F., above n 5, 457.

[84] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, recommendations 5 and 6, 284-292.

[85] Pritchard, S., "The Stolen Generations and Reparations" (1997) 4:3 UNSW Law Journal Forum 28, 28-29.

[86] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, recommendations 8 and 9, 295.

[87] Id, 294-295. The lack of domestic incorporation of the Genocide Convention was noted in Kruger and Bray cases, above n 70 (Dawson J, at 160; Toohey J, at 174; Gummow J, at 231; Gaudron J, at 190, comments on genocide being contrary to fundamental principles of common law).

[88] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, recommendation 11, 297.

[89] Id, recommendation 12, 300.

[90] Id, recommendation 13, 301.

[91] Id, Part 5.

[92] Id, recommendations 33 - 35, 396-397; recommendation 37, 401.

[93] Id, recommendation 36, 399.

[94] Commonwealth Government, (Submissions to) National Inquiry into Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families, 1996, 26-32. Also refer to, "Long delay awaits victims of forced removal", The Australian, 27 May 1997, "No compo for stolen children: Williams", Canberra Times, 22 May 1997.

[95] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 306.

[96] Graycar, R., "Compensation for the Stolen Children: political judgments and community values" (1997) 4:3 UNSW Law Journal Forum, 24-25.

[97] Ison, T., The Forensic Lottery: A Critique of Tort Liability as a System of Personal Injury Compensation (London: Staples Press, 1967); and see more generally; Cane, P., Accidents, Compensation and the Law, 5th Ed (Sydney: Butterworths, 1993); Luntz, H., The Assessment of Damages for Personal Injuries, 3rd Ed (Sydney: Butterworths, 1990).

[98] Graycar, above n 96.

[99] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, recommendation 14, 304.

[100] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 303-307.

[101] Id, 305.

[102] Id, recommendation 16, 310.

[103] Ibid.

[104] Id, recommendation 17, 311.

[105] Id, recommendation 18, 312. "That it be a defence to a claim (for a minimum lump sum) for the responsible government to establish that the removal was in the best interests of the child."

[106] Id, recommendation 19, 312.

[107] Id, Recommendation 20, 313. Refer to 302-313 for a discussion on the monetary compensation issue.

[108] South Australia: 28 May 1997; Western Australia: 28 May 1997; Queensland: 3 June 1997; ACT: 17 June 1997; New South Wales: 18 June 1997; Tasmania: 13 August 1997; and Victoria: 17 September 1997. The Northern Territory Government has not made a statement of apology. Most of the major churches have also issue statements of apology. Also a National Sorry Day organised by members of the community was held on 26 May 1998.

[109] Transcript of the Prime Minister The Hon. John Howard MP Motion of Reconciliation 26 August, 1999 [Internet] URL <http://www.pm.gov.au/media/pressrel/1999/reconciliation2608.htm> 1

[110] Ibid.

[111] Emphasis added

[112] Above n 109.

[113] Australia, Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs Senator John Herron "Bringing Them Home - Commonwealth Initiatives" Media Release (16 December 1997).

[114] Id, 1.

[115] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 278-279; and above n 113, 3. See also Buti, T, "The Removal of Aboriginal Children From Their Families: The Case for Reparation" Address, Eighth Concours International de Plaidoiries (Caen, 26 January 1997), 5.

[116] About $33 million in total, see Herron above n 113, 8.

[117] Id, 8-9.

[118] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 347.

[119] Herron, above n 113, 6.

[120] Id, 7.

[121] In conjunction with existing programmes.

[122] Family support and parenting programmes, culture and language centres. See Herron, above n 113, 5, 8-9. Note that the language and culture centres component is funded from ATSIC's existing budget. Note also the existence and partial implementation of migration and transfer of prisoners legislation.

[123] In fact, the Government acknowledged its incomprehensive response when it noted the Report's insistence upon compensation and other measures but stated that the proposed measures on family reunion, health and other services for those affected by forcible removal would "form the focus of the measures being announced". Id, 2-3.

[124] See for example, Article 10, 63(1), American Convention on Human Rights, O.A.S. Treaty Series No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123 entered into force July 18, 1978, reprinted in Basic Documents Pertaining to Human Rights in the Inter-American System, OEA/Ser.L.V/II.82 doc.6 rev.1 at 25 (1992); Article 21(2), African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), entered into force Oct. 21, 1986; Article 9(5), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights [ICCPR] G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force March 23, 1976; Article 5(5), European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS No. 5, Rome, 4.XI.1950; Article 14(1) Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. res. 39/46, annex, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984), entered into force June 26, 1987; Article 19, Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, G.A. res. 47/133, 47 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/47/49 (1992); Article 15(2), 16(5), ILO Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (ILO No. 169), 72 ILO Official Bull. 59, entered into force Sept. 5, 1991; Articles 12-13, 19, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power G.A. 40/34, annex, 40 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 53) at 214, U.N. Doc. A/40/53 (1985); Velásquez Rodriguez Case, Compensatory Damages (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights), Judgment of July 21, 1989 Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 7 (1990); Velásquez Rodriguez Case, Judgment of July 29, 1988, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 4 (1988), para 174-177; Factory at Chorzów (Germany-Poland), Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, 21; Factory at Chorzów (Germany-Poland), Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, 29; Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 184; see also E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/NGO/9 (written statement by the International Commission of Jurists to the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 44th Session) cited in van Boven, T, 1993: Study concerning the right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms: Final report submitted by Mr Theo van Boven, Special Rapporteur, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8; John Khemraadi Baboeram, André Kamperveen, Cornelis Harold Riedewald et al. v Suriname (1985) Communications Nos. 143/1983 and 148 to 154/1983, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990); Jean Miango Muiyo v Zaire (1987), Communication No. 194/1995, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990); and Antonio Vianna Acosta v Uruguay (1983) Communication No. 110/1981, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Selected Decisions of the Human Rights Committee (New York: United Nations, 1980).

[125] The Commonwealth submitted that three principles would preclude the ex-gratia payment of compensation: difficulties in identifying the persons eligible for compensation; difficulties in estimating the amount of loss in monetary terms; negative consequences for the wider community. See Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 305-306.

[126] Herron, above n 113, Summary of Recommendations and Commonwealth Initiatives.

[127] Because of the nature of the breach, restitutio in integrum stricto sensu is not possible.

[128] In the case of material impossibility: Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Volume 10 "States - Responsibility of States - International Law and Municipal Law" (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1987), 377 citing the Walter Fletcher Smith Claim (1949) 2 Reports of International Arbitral Awards, 9313; Rhodope Forest Case (1950) 3 Reports of International Arbitral Awards, 1406; Factory at Chorzów (Germany-Poland), Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, 47; De Wilde, Ooms & Versyp v Belgium, European Court of Human Rights, Judgment 10 March 1972 (Article 50), Series A, No. 14, para 20.

[129] Report of the National Inquiry, n 2, 305-307; and above n 95.

[130] For example, Velásquez Rodriguez Case, Compensatory Damages (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights), Judgment of July 21, 1989 Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 7 (1990), para 30-31; Godinez Cruz Case, Compensatory Damages (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights), Judgment of July 21, 1989, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. C) No. 8 (1990), para 28-29.

[131] Above n 109. Cf: The Honourable Jane Stewart, Minister Of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Statement of Reconciliation: Learning from the Past, 7 January 1998, http://www.inac.gc.ca/info/speeches/jan98/action.html

[132] Herron, above n 113, 1.

[133] Australia, Amnesty International "Silence on Human Rights: Government Responds to 'Stolen Children' Inquiry" Report ASA 12 February 98, para 4; note significance of Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom-Albania) [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 4.

[134] See generally Australia, Amnesty International "Silence on Human Rights: Government Responds to 'Stolen Children' Inquiry" Report ASA 12 February 98, para 28-30; there is also no comment upon the Government's duty to investigate and bring to justice those who perpetrated the breaches of such rights. On sanctions for perpetrators see above, note 30, para 15; John Khemraadi Baboeram, André Kamperveen, Cornelis Harold Riedewald et al. v Suriname (1985) Communications Nos. 143/1983 and 148 to 154/1983, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990); Joaquin David Herrera Rubio, José Herrera and Emma Rubio de Herrera v Colombia (1987) Communication No. 161/1983, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990); Jean Miango Muiyo v Zaire (1987), Communication No. 194/1995, reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990); Walter Lafuente Penarrieta, Miguel Rodriguez Candia, Oscar Ruiz Cáceres et al. v Bolivia (1987), Communication No. 176/1984), reported in United Nations, Human Rights Committee Selected decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the optional protocol, Vol. 2, Seventeenth to thirty-second sessions (October 1982-April 1988) (New York: United Nations, 1990).

[135] The principle that when an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander child is to be placed in substitute care, he or she should be placed within their own culture and community where possible.

[136] Report of the National Inquiry, above n 2, 250, 269, Part 6 - Chapter 21 generally; also Australia, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission "Commission urges Government to make amends to the Stolen Children" Media Release 27 May 1997.

[137] Kruger and Bray, above n 65.

[138] Amnesty International notes that the relevant Northern Territory ordinance in Kruger and Bray, was only one of over one hundred laws and policies which applied across different jurisdictions at varying times: Australia, Amnesty International "Silence on Human Rights: Government Responds to 'Stolen Children' Inquiry" Report ASA 12 February 98, para 19.

[139] Above n 65, 167 (Dawson J), 175 (Toohey J).

[140] The Commission's Report, above n 3.

[141] The Stuart, Skweyiya and Motsuenyane commissions of 1992-3, as noted in the Commission's report, above n 3, vol. 1, "mandate", para 6.

[142] Hayner, above n 36, 625.

[143] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol. 1, ch.4, para 7.

[144] Id, para 19.

[145] The amnesty provisions are discussed below.

[146] Smith, T., "A Nation Examines its Conscience", America 8 November 1997, vol. 177, no. 14, 22.

[147] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, ch.4, para 32.

[148] Id, para 34.

[149] Smith, above n 146.

[150] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.5, ch.6, para 5.

[151] Id, executive summary.

[152] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, ch.4, para 35.

[153] Id, vol.5, ch.6, para 101.

[154] Ibid.

[155] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.5 ch.6.

[156] Id, vol.1, ch.5, para 9.

[157] Id, vol.5, ch.5, para 54.

[158] Id, vol.1, foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, para 22.

[159] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, para 21.

[160] Id, vol.1, ch.5, para 60.

[161] Ibid.

[162] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, ch.5, para 71.

[163] Id, vol.1, foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, para 24.

[164] Goodman, D, "Why Killers Should Go Free: Lessons from South Africa", The Washington Quarterly, Spring 1999, v22, i2, p169 (1)

[165] Africa News Service, "No Impunity for Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuses", 2.8.99

[166] TRC Amnesty Hearings Current Schedule: http://www.truth.org.za/hs0799.htm

[167] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, para 50.

[168] Torrens, JS, "The Many Faces of Amnesty", America, 17.7.99, v181, i2, p12

[169] Ibid.

[170] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Paras 29 & 32.

[171] Goodman, above n 164

[172] Ibid.

[173] Ibid.

[174] Ibid.

[175] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.5, ch.5, para 8.

[176] Id, para 10.

[177] (1996) (8) BCLR 1015 (CC).

[178] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, ch.7, para 10.

[179] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.1, ch.7, para 11.

[180] Id, vol.5, ch.5, paras 5-6.

[181] Id, para 23.

[182] Id, para 36.

[183] As discussed above.

[184] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.5, ch.5, paras 38-39.

[185] The Commission's Report, above n 3, para 44.

[186] Id, paras 55-65.

[187] Id, para 64.

[188] Id, paras 69-72.

[189] The Commission's Report, above n 3, paras 73-75.

[190] Id, paras 78-93.

[191] Id, paras 95-96.

[192] Id, paras 96-97.

[193] Id, paras 98-99.

[194] The Commission's Report, above, n 3, para 100.

[195] Id, para 101.

[196] Id, para 102.

[197] Id, para 103.

[198] Id, para 104.

[199] Id, para 105.

[200] Id, para 106.

[201] Id, paras 107-112.

[202] Id, para 113.

[203] The Commission's Report, above n 3, paras 114-115.

[204] Another example is Uruguay

[205] Smith, above n 146.

[206] Ibid.

[207] The Commission's Report, above n 3, vol.5, ch.8, Recommendations.