[1] Nowak 1993, 458
[2] See de Varennes 1996, 55.
[3] For a detailed discussion of the concept of equality see the dissenting opinion of Tanaka, J. in the South West Africa Cases Second Phase), 1966 - reprinted in Brownlie 1922, 568-98.
[4] de Varennes 1996, 55.
[5] McKean 1983, 8.
[6] This case will be discussed below.
[7] McKean 1983, 51.
[8] See generally de Witte 1985 and de Varennes 1996, 380-459 for an in-depth discussion of this subject.
[9] See de Varennes 1996, 59.
[10] de Varennes 1996, 63.
[11] North Carolina Central Law Journal. Vol. 20, 1992, 70.
[12] See North Carolina Central Law Journal, Vol. 20, 1992, 66.
[13] See Ibid, 68
[14] 262 US 390 (1923)
[15] 271 US 500 (1926)
[16] North Carolina Central Law Journal, Vol. 20, 1992, 73.
[17] 414 US 563 (1974)
[18] 42 USC par. 2000 )d) (1982). See North Carolina Central Law Journal, Vol. 20, 1992, 86.
[19] 512 P. 2d 833 (1973)
[20] US Supreme Court, 22 June 1994. See de Varennes 1996, 62, footnote 21.
[21] Beloff 1987, 151.
[22] de Varennes 1996, 65.
[23] (1988) 2 SCR 712.
[24] See also the case of Devine v. Québec(1988) 2 SCR 790.
[25] Beloff 1987, 152.
[26] See generally, Beloff 1987.
[27] de Varennes 1996, 64. See the case of Raval v. DHSS [1985], IRLR 370.
[28] de Varennes 1996, 64.
[29] See Beloff 1987, 144-6.
[30] [1967] Q.B. 21.
[31] The Times, 25 July 1985.
[32] Beloff 1987, 146.
[33] Gromacki 1992, 521.
[34] Permanent Court of International Justice 1922-5, Series B, No. 6.
[35] Ibid. 6.
[36] Permanent Court of International Justice 1935, Series A / B, No. 64 at 17.
[37] McDougal, Lasswell & Chen 1976, 162.
[38] UN instruments prohibit discrimination on many grounds, but four grounds are always laid down as ground on which discrimination is prohibited, i.e. gender, race, religion and language.
[39] Charter of the United Nations (1945), as amended by GA Res. 1991 (XVIII), 1963 (557 UNTS 143), 2101, 1965 (638 UNTS 308); and 2847 (XXVI) 1971 (892 UNTS 119).
[40] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), GA Res. 2174 (III), UN Doc. A/810.
[41] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), GA Res. 2200A (XXI), UN Doc. A/6316
[42] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), GA Res. 2200A (XXI), UN Doc. A/6316.
[43] Note that the words 'distinction' is used here rather than 'discrimination' - the meaning of this is clarified by General Comment 18 of the Human Rights Committee which will be discussed below.
[44] General Comment of the Human Rights Committee, No. 18 [37], paragraph 7.
[45] Ibid, paragraph 9.
[46] Ibid, paragraph 10.
[47] Ibid, paragraph 13.
[48] Communication No. 221/1987, 11 Apr. 1991.
[49] Communication No. 333/1988, 11 April 1991.
[50] Communication No. 359/1989 & 385/1989, 31 March 1993
[51] Communication No. 760/1997, 6 September 2000.
[52] Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Europe) (1950), ETS 5/213 UNTS 222.
[53] E.g . Marckx, A 31 (1979), National Union of Belgian Police, A 19 (11975), X and Y v. Netherlands, A 91 (1985)
[54] A 6 (1968)
[55] Series A, No. 113 (1997)
[56] Ibid at paragraph 25.
[57] Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 325.
[58] Case 379/87, [1989] ECR 3967, [1990] I CMLR 401.
[59] Bunreacht na hÉireann 1937, Article 8
[60] Case 137/84 (1985), European Court Reports 2681.
[61] Case C-281/98 (2000), European Court Reports I - 4139.
[62] See Doherty, 16 - 17.
[63] Case No. OC-4/84.
[64] Ibid, at paragraphs 55-7. See de Varennes 1996, 71-2.
[65] Case No. OC-4/84 at paragraph 22.
[66] Ibid at paragraph 23.
[67] Communication No. 221/1987, 11 Apr. 1991 - Human Rights Committee.
[68] Communication No. 333/1988, 11 Apr. 1991 - Human Rights Committee.
[69] See, e.g. Permanent Court of Justice 1922 - 5, Series B., No. 6 and 1935, Series A/B and No. 64.
[70] General Comment 18.
[71] Communication No. 760/1997, 6 September 2000.
[72] 414 US 563 (1974).
[73] Garcia v Spun Steak, US Supreme Court, 22 June 1994.
[74] de Varennes 1996, 2.
[75] Communication No. 760/1997, 6 September 2000
[76] Arrêts du Tribunal Fédéral 91 I 480 (Switzerland), (1965)
[77] 2 SCR 712 (Canada), [1988]
[78] 2 SCR 790 (Canada) [1988]
[79] 1 SCR 1123 (Canada) [1990] - see page 1181.
[80] Quoted in Stephens 1978, 459.
[81] UN GAOR VOL. II, forty-fifth session at p. 61, UN Doc. A / 45 / 40 (1990)
[82] Ibid, paragraph 7.2.
[83] UN GAOR, Vol. II, forty-fifth session, Appendix X at p. 118, UN Doc. A / 45 / 40 (1990)
[84] Ibid at p. 127.
[85] Communications Nos. 221 / 1987 and 333 / 1988, 11 April 1991.
[86] Communications Nos. 359 / 1989 & 385 / 1989.
[87] European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, (1950), ETS 5/213, UNTS 222.
[88] 8 Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights 338, (1965)
[89] 13 Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights 792, (1970)
[90] 45 Decisions and Reports 240 (E. Commission of HR) at p. 243, (1986)
[91] Communication No. 760/1997, 6 September 2000.
[92] Ó Máille 1990, 28.
[93] Note: Ireland acceded to the ICCPR in 1989.
[94] Capotorti, Francesco 1979, Study on the Rights of Persons belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, paragraph 568.
[95] Comm. No. 228/1987, UN Doc. Supp. No., A/43/40 at 252 (1988)
[96] Series B, No. 7, 1923.
[97] Series A, No. 12, 1928.
[98] UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5, 1994.
[99] Comm. No. 24/1977, UN Doc. CPR/C/OP/1 (1984)
[100] Comm. No. 197/1985, UN Doc. CCPR/C/33/D/197 (1985)
[101] Comm. No. 24/1977, UN Doc. CPR/C/OP/1 (1984), par. 14.
[102] Nowak 1993, 497.
[103] See Nowak 1993, 500.
[104] See Nowak 1993, 497 - 9.
[105] Resolution prepared by Mark Killelea and adopted by the European Parliament 1994 [A3-0042/94].
[106] See Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, in Ó Riagáin 1998, 100 - 108 and also Gromacki 1992, 567 - 9.
[107] Beloff 1987, 140-1.